Trends and Issues in ICT

Advances in computer technology have led to more computing power packed into small devices. Light weight computing devices with low power consumption — laptops, tablets, smart phones — are now cheap and common, and have drastically changed the lifestyle and work culture of people, who can connect, send and receive information anywhere, anytime.

Mobile computing is a technology that has computing capability and can transmit/receive data while in motion. It requires portable computing devices, wireless communication networks, and connectivity to the Internet. The demand for mobile computing started the growth and development of mobile communication technology.

The term 'mobile' has completely revolutionised communication by opening up innovative ways for exchanging information, and mobile communication has become the backbone of society. Mobile communication networks do not depend on any physical connection to communicate between two devices.

The mobile phone was introduced in 1946. As the number of users increased, accommodating them within the limited available frequency spectrum became a major problem, solved with the cellular concept, developed in the 1960s at Bell Laboratories. In the late 1990s, when the Government of India offered spectrum licences, cellular technology became a common standard in the country.

Global System for Mobiles (GSM) is a globally accepted digital, circuit-switched standard for voice telephony, operating in the 900–1800 MHz band and identifying the network using the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). 2G was later expanded with GPRS (a packet-oriented, 'data only' service offering shorter access time and higher data rates) and EDGE (a superset of GPRS providing nearly three times faster speeds).

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) allows several transmitters to send information simultaneously over a single channel. It provides wider coverage than GSM, better reception in low signal conditions, wider bandwidth, greater resistance to interference, and better security.

Short Message Service (SMS) is a text messaging service allowing up to 160 characters. A message reaches a Short Message Service Centre (SMSC), which provides a 'store and forward' mechanism, retrying delivery if the recipient is unreachable. SMS messages are exchanged using the protocol Signalling System No. 7 (SS7).

Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) extends SMS to send and receive messages containing multimedia content — text, graphics, music, video clips and more — with no maximum size specified, unlike SMS.

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system used to locate a geographical position using its longitude and latitude, designed and operated by the U.S. Department of Defence. A GPS receiver needs at least three satellites to plot a 2D position, and four or more for a more accurate 3D position. GPS is used for vehicle fleet tracking, navigation, aircraft navigation, oil exploration and farming.

Smart cards are plastic cards embedded with a computer chip/memory that stores and transacts data — secure, intelligent and convenient. In mobile communication, smart card technology is used in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) for GSM phones, which stores personal subscriber information, helps identify a subscriber, and provides security for value added services.

A mobile operating system is the operating system used in a mobile device (smart phone, tablet, etc.), similar to an OS used in a desktop or laptop computer. It manages the hardware, multimedia functions and Internet connectivity, and is the software platform on which application programs run. Popular mobile operating systems are Android (Google), iOS (Apple), BlackBerry OS and Windows Phone (Microsoft).

Android is a Linux-based operating system designed mainly for touch screen mobile devices. It was originally developed by Android Inc. (founded in Palo Alto, California in 2003 by Andy Rubin and friends); in 2005 Google acquired Android Inc. In 2007, the Open Handset Alliance (OHA) — a consortium including Google, HTC, Intel and Motorola — was established to develop open standards for mobile devices, and Android was released alongside it.

The Android user interface is based on touch inputs like swiping, tapping, pinching and reverse pinching. Major Android versions are developed under a codename, released in alphabetical order.

The Android OS consists of a kernel based on the powerful Linux kernel (memory and process management, permissions-based security), and an Application Framework for developers, who build apps using the Android Software Development Kit. The Android code is released under the Apache License, allowing free modification and distribution; apps are written using a customised version of Java and are mostly available for free download from the Android Play Store, boosting its popularity.

With remarkable advances in mobile hardware and software, these trimmed-down operating systems may be heading in a direction that could replace a desktop OS, and could even be included in electronic devices like televisions and washing machines.

ICT has become a vital part of the business of many companies, growing at a fast pace to improve the quality of the product or service given to customers. The way people shop and the way products reach customers have undergone remarkable changes, shifting business from traditional shops to online retailers. Marketing specific to a customer has gained prominence alongside mass marketing — once shopping turned online, retailers could track not only what customers bought, but also what else they looked for, how they navigated the site, and how much they were influenced by promotions and social media reviews.

Before buying a product, people tend to search websites for price and user reviews, and check social network groups for opinions from friends. Business firms watch conversations and opinions posted on social media, using this data along with browsing patterns for their planning. Data from posts, digital pictures and videos, purchase transaction records, cell phone data, etc. related to a business is considered big data.

Data sources can be either structured (from databases) or unstructured (audio, documents, spreadsheets, social media posts). Big data analytics is the process of examining large data sets containing a variety of data types to uncover hidden patterns, market trends, customer preferences and other useful business information — leading to refined marketing campaigns, new revenue opportunities, improved operational efficiency and competitive advantages.

Business logistics is the management of the flow of goods/resources in a business between the point of origin and the point of consumption, ensuring availability of the right product, in the right quantity and condition, at the right place, time and cost. Business logistics includes:

• Purchase of materials from a company's suppliers
• Transportation of those materials to the company's production facilities
• Movement of finished goods through warehouses and transportation channels to customers

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is used to identify, track, sort or detect a wide variety of objects in logistics. RFID hardware consists of an RFID tag (a microchip plus a sending/receiving antenna) and a reader. Unlike bar codes, the tag need not be in a straight line with the reader, and the reader can read a tag's contents from a distance of several metres. Tags can be active (battery powered) or passive (powered by the reader), and are used in supermarkets, highway toll booths, and even fixed on animals for census purposes. RFID gives logistics operations increased visibility into product movement, improving efficiency, lowering operating costs and maximising on-time deliveries.

Many people engage in creative work — music, literary or artistic work, discoveries, inventions, designs and software. The outcome of such work is called intellectual property, and should be protected from unauthorised access so the creator gets the benefit of it. The importance of intellectual property was first recognised in the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886); both are now administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), established in 1960 as a UN agency.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are similar to any other property right — they give a person exclusive rights over the creation of his/her mind, for a period of time, enabling recognition and financial benefit. Intellectual property is divided into two categories: industrial property and copyright.

A. Industrial property applies to industry, commerce and agricultural products, protecting patents, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications. In India it is registered with the Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

• Patents — exclusive rights granted for an invention (a new product or process, involving an inventive step, capable of industrial use). Patent protection means the invention cannot be commercially made, used, distributed or sold without the owner's consent. The term of a patent in India is 20 years from the date of filing; after that it can be freely used by the public.
• Trademark — a distinctive sign (name, logo, symbol) that identifies goods or services and protects the owner's exclusive right to use it. A trademark must be registered; the initial term is 10 years, renewable thereafter. Trademark searches can be done through the registry maintained by the Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks.
• Industrial designs — protect the ornamental or aesthetic (visual) aspects of an article — its three-dimensional shape or two-dimensional patterns, lines or colour — applied to products and handicrafts.
• Geographical indications — signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation due to that origin, e.g. Aranmula Kannadi and Palakkadan Matta Rice from Kerala.

B. Copyright is a legal right given to creators for an original work — books, music, painting, sculpture, films, advertisements and computer software — covering reproduction, communication to the public, adaptation and translation. In India, the Copyright Act, 1957 governs this; a work is automatically protected by copyright when created, and generally lasts for 60 years after the death of the last surviving author. Registration is not necessary to get copyright, though it gives a clearer legal status.

Unauthorised use of intellectual property rights such as patents, copyrights and trademarks is called intellectual property infringement, which may be a violation of civil or criminal law depending on the type of property, jurisdiction and nature of the action.

• Patent infringement — using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder (e.g. the Apple–Samsung mobile technology dispute).
• Trademark infringement — using a trademark identical to one owned by another party for similar products/services (e.g. 'HORLIKS' toffees violating 'HORLICKS').
• Copyright infringement — reproducing, distributing, displaying or adapting a work without permission, often called piracy (software piracy, music piracy).

Cyber space is a virtual environment created by computer systems connected to the Internet — a simulated world where individuals gather information, interact, exchange ideas, provide social support, conduct business and play games. It is regarded as an information superhighway, but also an uncontrolled and unregulated electronic space, so users must follow rules and ethics beneficial to all.

Common uses of cyberspace include e-mail and website-based communication, e-commerce websites for online shopping, and Internet banking for fund transfers and bill payments — all saving considerable time and effort compared to visiting offices in person.

Cyber crime is a criminal activity in which computers or computer networks are used as a tool, target or place of criminal activity. Victims lose money, reputation and face mental trauma. An important aspect of cyber crime is its nonlocal character — an attacker may operate from one country and attack a destination in another, requiring investigating teams and judiciaries of different countries to cooperate. Cyber crimes are basically divided into three major categories:

A. Cyber crimes against individuals — acts causing physical or mental trouble to a person: identity theft (using another's identifying information without permission), harassment (including cyber stalking — threats, false accusations, monitoring), impersonation and cheating (mailing scams, fake online auctions), violation of privacy (unauthorised photography or distribution of private information), and dissemination of obscene material (pornography).

B. Cyber crimes against property — hacking, piracy, computer vandalism, unauthorised intrusion: credit card fraud (unauthorised use of card information), intellectual property theft (including plagiarism and software piracy), and Internet time theft (unauthorised use of another's Internet connection).

C. Cyber crimes against government — increasing e-governance has made governments vulnerable: cyber terrorism (attacks on sensitive networks like nuclear plants, air traffic control, e.g. the 2010 Stuxnet virus that disabled Iran's uranium enrichment programme), website defacement (hacking and posting derogatory content), and attacks against e-governance websites (e.g. Distributed Denial of Service — DDoS — attacks).

According to National Crime Records Bureau statistics, cyber crime cases registered under the IT Act rose sharply — from 142 in 2006 to 4,356 in 2013 — showing a significant year-on-year increase.

Awareness is the first step in protecting ourselves, our family and our business online. Suggested ethical practices over the Internet include:

• Use anti-virus, firewall and spam blocking software.
• Ensure security of websites (https and padlock) during online transactions.
• Do not respond or act on e-mails from unknown sources.
• Use unique, complex passwords (minimum 8 characters, mixing alphabets, numbers and special characters) and change them regularly.
• Do not select check boxes or click OK before reading an agreement fully.
• Avoid unauthorised software; do not hide your identity to fool others; avoid rude language online.
• Remove the 'Remember me' check mark before logging in on shared/public computers.

Cyber law refers to the legal and regulatory aspects of the Internet, governing the use of computers and the Internet. In India this is addressed by the Information Technology Act, 2000 (passed by Parliament in May 2000) and the IT Amendment Bill 2008 (passed December 2008), which touch on authentication, digital signatures, cyber crime and liability of network service providers, and provide legal recognition for electronic transactions and communication. Sections 65–74 specifically deal with cyber crime.

Punishment for sending offensive messages through e-mail, social media or SMS is decided according to the relevant sections of the Indian Penal Code (IPC).

Cyber forensics is the discipline that combines elements of law and computer science to collect and analyse data from computer systems, networks, communication systems and storage devices in a way that is admissible as evidence in a court of law. Its goal is to analyse data while preserving the integrity of the evidence collected, since traditional law enforcement tools do not successfully address the detection, investigation and prosecution of cyber crime.

Infomania is the state of getting exhausted with excess information, occurring due to accumulation of information from many sources (Internet, e-mail, cell phones) that cannot be processed well. It is the excessive enthusiasm for acquiring knowledge, which may result in neglecting more important things like duties and family. Constantly checking e-mails and social media, out of a fear of being left out of the group, are symptoms of infomania — now treated as a psychological problem that can reduce concentration, sleep and intelligence.